Ader H, Mellenbergh G, eds. Research Methodology in the Social, Behavioural and Life Sciences. London: Sage Publications, 1999.
-This book is a good overview with which to begin. Chapters on metadata, experimental design, measurement models, meta-analysis, graphs, well-defined models of data sets, causality and structural equation models, and more.

Babbie ER. The Basis of Social Research, 8^th ed. Belmont, CA, Wadsworth, 1998.
-This is a good general text on the fundamental logic and skill of research. It includes easy to understand discussions of elementary statistics.

Beasley D. Beasley's Guide to Library Research. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2000.
-This book is an invaluable "how to" resource for library- based research. Beasley includes useful informatioon on the many services of research libraries and includes computer databases and online computer searches.

Greenfield T, ed. Research Methods: Guidance for Postgraduates London, New York: Arnold J. Wiley, 1996.
-The book is divided into sections covering the general management of research, different types of research, data measurement, data analysis, modeling and stimulation, presentation and intellectual property protection.

Jonassen D. Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology:A Project of the Association for Educational Communications and Technology. United States: Macmillan Lib. Ref., 1996.
-Chapters are arranged in seven sections with their own bibliographies. "Foundations for Research" includes viewpoints in the fields of behaviorism, communication, psychology, sociology, and theory. "Research Methodologies" includes experimental, qualitative, descriptive, and development methodologies.

Neutens J. Reseasrch Techniques for the Health Sciences, 3^rd ed. San Francisco: Allyn and Bacon, 2002.
-Most chapters begin with a health-oriented case study, and end with a case discussion as well as a summary and suggested activities. There are helpful chapters on data collection through surveys, techniques for data presentation, and evaluation research. Has material on epidemiologic investigations and sampling techniques. Appendix has information on common statistical procedures.

Patten M. Understanding Research Methods: An Overview of the Essentials, 2^nd ed. Los Angeles: Pyrczak Publishing, 2000.
-Good reading for the beginner in research. Patten introduces thirteen different topics, such as theory, hypotheses, variables, experimental and non-experimental studies, differences between quantitative and qualitative research, and ethical issues in research. Of interest are the fourteen topics on understanding statistics.

Polgar S, Thomas S. Introduction to Research in the Health Sciences,4^th ed. Edinburgh, New York: Churchill Livingstione, 2000.
-Polgar introduces quantitative research technique and shows how to plan a research project from formulation of a question through data collection, presentation, and evaluation. Each chapter contains a self-assessment test.

Powell RR. Basic Research Methods for Librarians, 3^nd ed. Norwood, NJ, Ablex Publishing Company, 1997.
-Powell provides a comprehensive introduction to the reesearch approaches that can be used by library investigators. This book has practical chapters on framing the research inquiry, writing the proposal and report, and impressive and helpful references.

Smith RV. Graduate Research: A Guide for Students in the Sciences. 3^rd ed. Seattle, University of Washington Press 1998.
-Smith intends to aid students and beginning researchers in their research and writing skills. A discussion of the initial choices faced by students and lessons in time management and commitment preface the aspects of research work, including issues relevant to ethics, funding, and getting published.

Accountability in Research. New York: Gordon and Breach, 1989.
-This journal is devoted to the study and critical analysis and examination of systems for conducting reseasrch. It provides an international and interdisciplinary forum for the development of new standards and policies for assuring research data integrity. Biotechnology, medicine, pharmacology, pathology, and environmental science are its focus disciplines. 

2.  General Research Methods

2.1 Books
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Bailey D. Research for the Health Professional: A Practical Guide. London: Sage, 1999.
-A workbook for the beginning health researcher, covering every step in the research process. A section on qualitative research studies.

Batavia M. Clinical Research for Health Professionals: A User-Friendly Guide. Boston: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001.
-Batavia's book offers a non- technical, coherent summary of research concept and methods, focusing on the features of good research and common mistakes. The book uses metaphors, visual images, and examples to simplify complex research concepts. It provides computer exercises to help readers understand statistical concepts.

Brman A. Quantity and Quality in Social Research. London, New York: Routledge, 1992.
-The author provides excellent resesarch examples of every point made. What the author says is relevant to any social science. The book has a twenty-page bibliography and an index.

Eden C, Spender JC, eds. Managerial and Organizational Cognition: Theory, Methods, and Research. London: Sage, 1998.
-Readers get a good understanding of the important theoretical and methodological challenges of cognitive research. The book chapters offer examples of research questions that can be pursued from a cognitive perspective. Level of analysis problem is discussed. Four chapters offer empirical cognition research.

Eichler M. Nonsexist Research Methods: A Practical Guide, New York, Routledge, 1991.
-This book provides a systematic approach to identifying and eliminating sexist bias in social science research. Chapters are problem-defined. The book includes a Nonsexist Research Checklist that is designed to be used in the research process.

Fawcett J, Downs FS. The Relationship of Theory and Research, 3rd ed. Philadelphia, F.A. Davis, 1999.
-The author presents a detailed discussion of the relationship between conceptual models, middle-range theories, and empirical resesasrch methods. Discusses how to integrate research findings and presents guidelines for writing research reports. Appends several sample research papers with Fawcett's analyses.

Fowler F. Survey Research Methods, 3^rd ed. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications, 2002.
-Gives researchers who want to collect and analyze survey data a sound basic for evaluating how each aspect of a survey can affect its precision, accuracy, and creditability. Includes latest options available to researchers in using the computer and Internet for surveys. Emphasizes the importance of minimizing nonsampling errors through superior question design.

Glazier JD, Powell, RR. Qualitative Research in Information Management, Englewood, CO, Libraries Unlimited, Inc., 1992.
--This book describes the rationale for qualitative research, its relationship to quantitative methods, and the techniques applicable to library and information management.

Houtkoop-Steenstra H. Interaction and the Standardized Survey Interview: The Living Questionnaire. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
- Through the use of in-depth qualitative conversation analysis (CA), the author provides a strong voice that illustrates the weaknesses in the assumptions and practices of standardized interviewers. Survey interviewing is an important source of social science data, and the stateof survey interviewing is reliant on standardization. The author advocates administering survey questions via flexible interviewing.

Isaac S, Michael WB. Handbook in Research and Evaluation: A Collection of Principles, Methods, and Strategies Useful in the Planning, Design, and Evaluation of Studies in Education and the Behavioral Sciences, 3rd ed. San Diego, EdITS Publishers, 1995.
--This book provides an overview of major methods of research, statistical analysis, and measurement instruments. It provides some very useful summaries of common problems and solutions in designing, conducting, analyzing, and communicating the results of research projects. Incorporates criteria and guidelines for preparing research proposals, reports or articles.

Kerlinger FN. Foundations of Behavioral Research, 4^th ed. New York, NY, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1992.
-This volume includes everything a researcher needs to know about the methods and principles of behavioral research. The examples are extremely useful in facilitating the understanding of research methods and the analysis of data. This comprehensive guide can be used for work in psychology, nursing, sociology, market research, and other areas.

Lattal K, Perone M, eds. Handbook of Research Methods in Human Operant Behavior. New York: Plenum Press, 1998.
-A host of special methodological arise in any discussion of research on human behavior. This book addresses many of these questions with nineteen experts in the field. It is a vaiuable resource for researchers who want to bridge laboratory developments with applied study.

Leedy, PD. Practical Research: Planning and Design, 7^th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill Prentice Hall, 2001.
-Includes excerpts from actual research projects, which help guide the reader through all phases of the research process. Topics new to this edition include on-line research, evaluating literature, identifying appropriate measurement instruments, and criteria for evaluating qualitative research.

Marshall C, Rossman GB. Designing Qualitative Research, 3^rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications, 1999.
-Helpful chapters on "Building the Conceptual Framework,""Building the Research Design," as well as "Data Collection Methods,""Recording Managing and Analyzing Data" and "Planning Time and Resources."

Newman I. Qualitative-Quantitative Research Methodology: Exploring the Interactive Continuum. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1998.
-The centerpiece of this book is the author's graphic representation of inquiry as a cycle of steps that each type of method takes in a different order and manner. Quantitative inquiry is depicted as beginning with a theory to be tested, while qualitative inquiry is shown as starting with data collection and proceeding to the construction of new theory.

Schwab D. Research Methods for Organizational Behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999.
-Those with various levels of research knowledge can read this book. The first fifteen chapters introduce basic research topics. The final section contains four short chapters, which extend the discussion of a basic topic. This book covers applied issues usually missing in research texts, such as cleaning data, handling missing data, coding data, and transforming data. This texts focus is on quantitative research.

Schwarz N. Cognition and Communication: Judgemental Biases, Research Methods, and the Logic of Conversation. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1996.
-This book introduces the social science researcher to the "logic of conversation" developed by Paul Grice. The author applies this framework to research on personal perceptions, decision-making, and the emergence of context effects in attitude measurement and public opinion research.

Williamson K. Research Methods for Students and Professionals: Information Management and Systems. Wagga Wagga: N.S.W. Centre for Information Studies, Charles Sturt University, 2000.
-One of the purposes of this book is to produce critical consumers of research. This work includes coverage of a very wide range of methods, clear and straightforward explanations of often quite complex issues, and useful diagrams. The final chapter on "Evaluation of Published Research" is useful.

2.2 Journal Articles
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Bertot J. Measuring Service Quality in the Networked Environment: Approaches and Considerations. Library TrendsSpring 2001;49(4):758-775.
- This article offers a number of statistics anad performance measures that librarians might find useful in determining the overall quality criteria, and provides a framework to assist librarians in selecting statistics and performance measures based on service quality criteria.

Blitz B, Hamasu C, Sandstrom H. The Focus Group: A Tool for Programme Planning, Assessment, and Decision-Making -- An American View. Health Information and Libraries Journal March 2001; 18(1):30-37
- This article explores the focus group methodology, a qualitative research technique,by discussing why it is used and the process involved in its use. Aspects of the methodology that are discussed include participant selection, question development, data analysis, and use of results in programme planning.

Diaz K, O'Hanlon N. Hot Topics on the Web: Strategies for Research. Reference, and User Services QuarterlyFall 2001; 41(1):25-29.
-Some pitfalls of research on the Web when the research is being done for "hot," controversial, or debatable topics are highlighted. Strategies and sources which will facilitate efficient use of the Web for research topics are listed.

Frank D, Madden L, Simons N. The Use of Statistics by Academic Librarians: Comments on a Significant Problem and Suggestions for Improvements. Georgia Library Quarterly Summer 2001; 38(2):5-10.
-This article focuses on a rationale for the correct use of statistical procedures and techniques. Basic assumptions and elements of descriptive and inferential statistics are noted. The importance of the thesis or problem statement as well as the relevance of hypothesis testing is emphasized.

Glitz B. The Focus Group Technique in Library Research, An Introduction. Bulletin of the Medical Library Association October 1997; 85*4(:385-390.
-This article introduces the use of focus groups in library research, the skills needed to conduct focus groups, and their strengths and weaknesses. Examples of the use of focus groups in health sciences libraries are presented including the results of a survey from these libraries.

Herndl C, Nahrwold C. Researcj as Social Practice: A Case Study of Research on Technical and Professional Communication. Written Communication April 2000; 17(2):258-296.
-Most discussions of qualitative research organize research methodolgies according to their place in a set of research paradigms identified by epistemological ontological commitments. The authors offer a model of research practices organized according to their relationship to social power rather than abstract paradigms.

Hernon P. Determination of Sample Size and Selection of the Sample: Concepts, General Sources and Software. College and Research Libraries 1994;55(2):171- 179.
--This article provides an introduction to sampling, determining sample size, and selecting samples with a focus on concepts, general sources and sampling software.

Hernon P, Nitecki D. Service Quality: A Concept Not Fully Explored. Library Trends Spring 001; 49(4)687-708.
-This article examines service quality and identifies issues meriting attention. The purpose is to guide the next generation of research on service quality in libraries and to ensure that this research has value to library planning and decision-making.

Horn J. Qualitative Research Literature: A Bibliographic Essay. Library Trends Spring 1998; 46(4):602-615.
-This article identifies four methodological frameworks that have found wide application in this overview of qualitative studies. These are 1)symbolic interactionism, 2) phenomenological description, 3) constructivist hermeneutics, and 4)critical studies.

Jan L. Introduction to Computer Usage for Qualitative Research. Journal of Information, Communication and Library Science Summer 2001; 7(4):101-109.
-This article offers a number of statistics and performance measures that libraries may find useful in determining the overall quality of their network-based services, identifies a number of service quality criteria, and provides a framework to assist librarians in selecting statistics and performance measures based on service quality criteria.

Janes J. Why a Column on Research Techniques? Library Hi Tech. 1999; 17(2):211-216
-This column begins a series on topics in research methodology, statistics, and data analysis techniques for the library and information sciences professional. The process of research is described, and a sample research question is proposed and discussed, emphasizing the importance of definitions in crafting a productive research question.

Osif BA, Harwood R. Statistics for Librarians. Library Administration and Management Winter 2001; 15(1):50-55.
Good overview of what is available in the literature to help in understanding and using statistics. Books, articles, and a few websites are mentioned.

Powell R. Recent Trends in Research: A Methodological Essay. Library and Information Science Research 1999; 21(1):91-119.
-This article begins with a review of the various research methods that researchers in library and information science have used. The focus then changes to methods appearing in the qualitative research. They include phenomenological methods, hermeneutics, ethomethodology, reflexivity, discourse analysis, and semiotics. Methods more, if not exclusively, quantitative in nature are examined and include choice analysis, log analysis, protocol analysis, and geographic information systems.

Riggs D. Getting Research Published. College & Research Libraries September 2001; 62(5):392-393.
-Riggs offers librarians suggestions on the methods and best practice of writing a research article and getting it published in a reputable journal. Before engaging in a research endeavor, he encourages librarians to learn about basic research methods.

Robinson L. A Strategic Approach to Research Using Internet Tools and Resources. Aslib Proceedings January 2000; 52(1): 11-19.
This article describes a method for carrying out research in a multimedia environment encompassing printed, electronic, and Internet-based resources.
 

2.3 Statistics
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Dickoff, G. Basic Statistics for the Social and Behavioral Sciences. Upper Saddle River,NJ, Prentice Hall, 1996
--This textbook offers an introduction to applied statistics.

Hafner AW. Descriptive Statistical Techniques for Librarians, 2nd ed., Chicago, American Library Association,1997.
-This tool will help librarians better understand and present key quality indicators representing the best of their operations. This second edition has added more figures, problems, and tables in detailed chapters that discuss basic statistical terms, data analysis methods, correlation analysis, and sampling strategies. This book has many examples with helpful step-by-step strategies.

Harris MB. Basic Statistics for Behavioral Science Research. Durham: Sage Publications, 1998.
-This book was written for those who have to learn to use statistics in order to read, understand, or conduct research. There are chapters on data description techniques, basic probability issues, and inferential statistics. Not for those who understand statistics.

Hernon P. Statistics: A Component of the Research Process, Rev. ed. Norwood, NJ, Ablex, 1994.
--This easy to read book is written for librarians and library school students. The author provides an

Hopkins K. Basic Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences, 3^rded. Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1996.
-The approach in this book is conceptual rather than mathematical. The authors stress the understanding, applications, and interpretation of concepts rather than derivation and proof or hand-computation. The book provides clear definitions, examples, problem sets, and makes the reader feel better about statistics.

Howell DC. Fundamental Statistics for the Behavioral Sciences.This book provides an overview of the research process and introduces basic statistical concepts, terminology, techniques, and procedures. Practical examples are provided. , 3rd ed. Belmont, CA, Duxbury Press, 1995.
--This is one of many good general textbooks on statistics. The author focuses on psychometrics.

Koch G, Waterstratt F. Basic Allied Health Statistics and Analysis, 2^nd ed. Albany, NY: Delmar/Thomson Learning, 2000.
-This book provides a review of computational skills and basic statistics required by health professionals. Initial chapters provide an overiview of statistical terms, a mathematical review, and an introduction to the health care setting. Various health care statistical formulae are covered. There is a chapter on computerized rates and graphing.

McCall, RB. Fundamental Statistics for Behavioral Sciences, 7th ed., Pacific Grove, CA, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, 1997.
--This comprehensive text emphasizes the purpose, rationale and application of important statistical concepts and includes many computations and problems for solving.

Monahan J. Numerical Methods of Statistics. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
-This book explains how computer software is designed to perform the tasks required for sophisticated statistical analysis. There are several chapters on a broad array of statistical tools. Each chapter contains exercises as well as examples of the methods at work.

Osborn CE. Statistical Applications for Health Information Management. Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen Publishers, 2000.
-The author's goal is to show that statistical techniques can be used to describe and make inferences from health care data. The book is unique because it promotes the use of statistical techniques encountered in everyday work.

Rees DG. Essential Statistics, 3rd ed. London, Chapman and Hall, 1995.
-This book describes various descriptive and inferential statistical methods. Its strengths lie in copious examples and practice "worksheets". A chapter on Minitab is useful for the beginner.

Ryan, TP. Modern Regression Methods, New York, J. Wiley, 1996.
-This text is part of the Wiley series in probability and statitics - applied probability and statistics. It includes detailed information on all aspects of regression analysis.
 

3. Specific Research Methods
 

3.1 Bibliometrics
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Cronin B. Bibliometrics and Beyond: Some Thoughts on Web-Based Citation. Journal of Information Science 2001;27(1):1-7.
-Exploration of new methods of citation and link analysis that may capture expressions of peer respect, influence, and commendation unique to the new contexts and contents of publication on the World Wide Web.

Garfield E. Use of Journal Citation Reports and Journal Performance Indicators in Measuring Short and Long Term Journal Impact. Croation Medical Journal 2000; 41(4):368-374.
-Description of how to use two Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) databases, Journal Citation Reports and Journal Performance Indicators, to study scientific journals, the content of their articles, and the evolution of scientific disciplines.

Kostoff RN, Rio JAD, Humenik JA, Ramirez AM. Citation Mining: Integrating Text Mining and Bibliometrics for Research User Profiling. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology 2001; 52(13):1148-1156.
- Description of a novel approach used to identify paths through which research can influence other research, technology development, and applications. Also describes a literature-based method for identifying some characteristics of the user population.

Van Hooydonk G. Fractional Counting of Multiauthored Publications: Consequences for the Impact of Authors. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 1997; 48(10):944-945.
-Examination of the problem of relating bibliometric scores of authors with the quality of their research in multiauthored papers.
 

3.2 Case Studies and Field Research
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Ahrens T, Dent JF. Accounting and Organizations: Realizing the Richness of Field Research. Journal of Management Accounting Research 1998;10:1-39.
-Management accounting is the model for a discussion of how richness, depth, and breadth can be added to the outcomes of field research.

Baxter JA, Fong W. Doing Field Research: Practice and Meta-Theory in Counterpoint. Journal of Management Accounting Research1998;10:69-87.
- Management accounting is the model for a side-by-side discussion of the practical issues involved in performing field research and the philosophical, theoretical implications and trends of field work.

Edwards DJA. Types of Case Study Work: A Coonceptual Framework for Case-based Research. Humanistic Psychology 1998;38(3):36-70.
-Describes a conceptual structure for understanding the phases and sub-phases of case-based research. The principles for assuring validity within each phase are emphasized.

Herzfeld M. Anthropology: A Practice of Theory. International Social Science Journal 1997; 49(3):301-318.
-Discusses the benefits of applying field research methods to global phenomena.

Heyl BS. Talking Across the Differencese in Collaborative Fieldwork: Unanticipated Consequences. Sociological Quarterly 1997:38(1):1-18.
-Discusses the evolution of insight and outcomes in collaborative field research performed over a lengthy period of time.

Lewis MW. Iterative Triangulation: A Theory Development Process Using Existing Case Studies. Journal of Operations Management 1998; 16(4):455-469.
- Proposes creative means of theory development, combining systematic repetition among literature review, case evidence, and intuition that result in stronger internal validity.

Savage J. Parcipative Observation: Standing in the Shoes of Others? Qualitative Health Research 2000; 10(3):324-329.
-Argues that participant observation demands enhanced theoretical attention in order to assure reliability, validity, and acceptance in the research community.

Sofaer S. Qualitative Methods: What Are They and Why Use Them? Health Services Research 1999;35(5 Pt 2):1101-1118.
-Describes the importance of qualitative research methods, especially participant-observer studies, to describing and improving health services. Cautions that rigor must be maintained and that special training and experience are necessary to practice qualitative research.

Sokolovsky M. Case Study as a Reseasrch Method to Study Life Histories of Elderly People: Some Idease and a Case Study of a Case Study. Journal of Aging Studies 1996;10(4):281-294.
-Examines the use of life history interviewing as a method of case study research. Validity and reliability of case study as a research method are discussed.

Turnock C, Gibson V. Validity in Action Research: A Discussion on Theoretical and Practice Issues Encountered Whilst Using Observation to Collect Data. Journal of Advanced Nursing 2001;36(3):471-477.
- Focuses on the use of narrative analysis as a case study technique to facilitate the development of common understandings of key concepts, such as quality, among diverse groups of stakeholders.

White I, Tacket A. Exploring the Use of Narrative Analysis as an Operational Research Method: A Case Study in Voluntary Sector Evaluation. Journal of the Operational Research Society 2000;51(6):700-711.
-Focuses on the use of narrative analysis as a case study technique to facilitate the development of common understandings of key concepts, such as quality, among diverse groups as stakeholders.

Yin RK. Case Study Research: Design and Methods, 2nd ed. Newbury Park, Sage Publications, 1994.
--The author discusses the design and implementation of single and multiple case studies for research. A useful comparison is made between case study methodology and other research strategies with a focus on design, analysis and reporting issues.
 

Tamakoshi L and Cross B. Kirksville MO:Truman State University.Field Work: The Anthropologist in the Field. http://www1.truman.edu/academics/ss/faculty/tamakoshil/
-Provides an excellent guide to anthropological methods in field work, including planning, method, writing, and reference. Conceived as a means of deepening students' appreciation for field work as a way to understand cultures.

3.3 Content Analysis
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Ahuvia A. Traditional, Interpretive, and Reception Based Content Analyses: Improving the Ability of Content Analysis to Address Issues of Pragmatic and Theoretical Concern. Social Indicators Research 2001;54(2):139-172.
Argues for the addition of two new varieties of content analysis - reception based and interpretive-in order to expand from quantifying the content of texts to interpretations of the content.

Gephart R. Hazardous Measures: An Interpretive Textual Analysis of Quantitative Sensemaking During Crises. Journal of Organizational Behavior1997;18(Special Issue):582-622.
Describes a computer-supported approach to the interpretive analysis of content, especially organizational texts and documents. Uses four analytical processes to provide insight into the communicators' meanings and interpretations. They include theoretical sampling, software-supported textual analysis, expansion analysis, and the production of textual statistics.

Schamber L. Time-line Interviews and Inductive Content Analysis: Their Effectiveness for Exploring Cognitive Behaviors. Journal of the American Society for Information Science 2000;51(8):734-744.
-Describes the advantages and disadvantages of using time-line interviews and inductive content analyses to explore the cognitive behaviors of users.  

3.4 Evaluative or Outcomes Research
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Eldredge JD. Evidence-based Librarianship: Searching for the Needed EBL Evidence. Medical Reference Services Quarterly 2000;19(3):1-18.
-Describes the difficulties and challenges of finding evidence to support EBL and recommends the implementation of systems designed to provide the evidence needed to support evidence-based librarianship.

Eldredge JD. Evidence-based Librarianship: An Overview. Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 2000;88(4):289-302.
Demonstrates how the core concepts of evidence-based medicine and evidence-based health care can be adapted to health sciences librarianship. Encourages the development of an evidence-based, decision making framework to promote the production of higher level research in health sciences librarianship.

Gardner JK, Rall LC, Peterson CA. Lack of Multidisciplinary Collaboration is a Barrier to Outcomes Research. Journal of the American Dietetic Association 2002;102(1):65-71.
-Description of attempts at collaboration between dietitians and other health professionals to perform outcomes research and the barriers that diminish such opportunities. Conclusion may be generalizable across clinical disciplines.

Mike V. Outcomes Research in the Quality of Health Care: The Beacon of an Ethics of Evidence. Evaluation and the Health Professions 1999;22(1):3-32.
- Discusses the imperative for scientific evidence as the basis of medical decision making. Explores the ethics of evidence in the context of outcomes research.

Mordock JB. Outcome Assessment: Suggestions for Agency Practice. Child Welfare 2000; 79(6):689-710.
-Provides an introduction to the conduct of outcomes research, including the concepts of statistical significance, effect size, and meaningfulneess of events.

Medical Outcomes Trust. http://www.outcomes-trust.org/index.html.
- Website of an organization devoted to achieving the universal adoption of health outcomes assessment in health care to improve the quality of health services. A library of instruments designed to measure health outcomes is available on the site. Site recommended in the June 1999 issue of Hospitals & Health Networks.
 

3.5 Historical Research
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Connor, JJ. Medical Text and Historical Context: Research Issues and Methods in History and Technical Communication. Journal of Technical Writing and Communication 1993;23(3):211-232.
--The author focuses on problems in historical medical text research and lists five steps for conducting sound historical research.

Rayward, WB. The History and Historiography of Information Science: Some Reflections. Information Processing & Management 1996;32(1):3-17.
--This paper reviews problems which information science historians encounter and concludes that the scope of literature encompassed by these studies should be expanded.

Sarnecky MT. Historiography: A Legitimate Research Methodology for Nursing. Advances in Nursing Science 1990;12(4):1-10.
--The author briefly describes historiography or historical research as a method of research. Thirty six references provide an excellent additional source of information.
 

3.6 Interviews
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Brotherson, MJ. Interactive Focus Group Interviewing: A Qualitative Research Method in Early Intervention. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education 1994;14(1):101-118.
--The author describes a six-pronged process to lead focus group research.

Fowler FJ, Mangione TW. Standardized Survey Interviewing: Minimizing Interviewer-Related Error, Newbury Park, CA, Sage Publications, 1990.
--This book is a companion to the previous title for the researcher who is ready for advanced concepts in using interviewing as a data collection technique.

Holstein, JA, Gubrium, JF. The Active Interview, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 1995.
--This text includes suggests on language to use during interviewing and hints at conducting better field interviews.

Kvale, S. Interviews: An Introduction to Qualitative Research Interviewing, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 1996.
--This brand-new book was just catalogued by the Library of Congress but the reputation of the publisher merits addition to this bibliography. This was originally a Swedish publication and covers theoretical aspects of interviewing, ethical issues involved and improving interview reports.

MacDougall C. Planning and Recruiting the Sample for Focus Groups and In- Depth Interviews. Qualitative Health Research 2001; 11(1):117-127.
-The authors address the importance of sampling and recruiting for focus groups and in-depth interviews. The strategies proposed involve the three stages: prepare, contact, and follow-up.

Merton RK, Fiske M, Kendall PL. The Focused Interview: A Manual of Problems and Procedures, 2nd. New York, The Free Press, Division of Macmillan, Inc., 1990.
--Focus group interviews have become widespread in commercial circles and are eliciting interest in academic and other not-for-profit environments. An updated version of the 1956 edition, this is a manual which systematically describes the focussed interview including procedures and problems.

Seidman IE. Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and the Social Sciences, New York, NY, Teachers College Press, 1991.
--This book provides a step-by-step introduction to the research process using in- depth interviewing in research. It also discusses specific interviewing skills and links them to important issues in interviewing and qualitative research.

Turnbull A. Collaboration and Censorship in the Oral History Interview. International Journal of Social Research Methodology 2000;3(1):15-34.
-Issues of collaboration and censorship and how they relate to Oral History are discussed

Widdows R, Hensler TA, Wyncott MH. The Focus Group Interview: A Method for Assessing Users' Evaluation of Library Service. College and Research Libraries 1991;52(4):352-359.
--This article describes the purpose, utility, and method for conducting focus interviews in the library environment.
 

3.7 Literature Summaries
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Green BN, Johnson CD, Adams A. Writing narrative literature reviews for peer-reviewed journals: Secrets of the trade. Journal of Sports Chiropractic & Rehabilitation 2001; 15(1):5-19.
-Speaks of synthesizing the literature from computerized searches, hand searches and authoritative texts. Step by step instructions for how to conduct an write a narrative overview are discussed.

Martin PA. Writing a Useful Literature for a Quantitative Research Project. Applied Nursing Research 1997;10(3):159-162.
-Provides some insights to level of detail to include, the content, and using literature in discussion in the paper.

Rundall TG. Conducting and Writing Research Reviews. Medical Care Research and Review 1996;53:S132-S145.
-Speaks of research syntheses, and provides the stages of development in a research syntheses.

Wolcott HF. Writing up qualitative research...better. Qualitative Health Research 2002; 12(1):91-103.
-The author encourages researchers to consider alternative ways of satisfying the intent of a literature review, and writing in a more discovery-oriented way.

3.8 Meta-Analysis
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Beck CT. Facilitating the work of a meta-analyst. Research in Nursing & Health 1999;22(6):523-30.
-In this article the benefits and criticisms of meta-analysis are identified along with the specific problems a meta-analyst may encounter in conducting a synthesis of the literature.

Jensen JL, Rodgers R. Cumulating the Intellectual Gold of Case Study Research. Public Administration Review 2001; 61(2):235-246.
-Argues that the use of meta-analysis as a tool for combining results from case studies is a powerful method for knowledge cumulation in a field. The field explored in this article is that of public administration, but the arguments can be generalized to other disciplines.

Schell CL, Rathe RJ. Meta-analysis: a tool for medical and scientific discoveries. Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 1992;80(3):219-222
-This article provides a historical perspective of the method with emphasis on the importance of medical libraries and librarians to this type of research.

Trahan, E. Applying Meta-Analysis to Library and Information Science Research. Library Quarterly 1993;63(1):73-91.
-The author tested the feasibility of meta-analysis in his study of the publications about paper- or computer-based information retrieval and reviews the literature on this technique.
 

3.9 Scales Research
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DeVellis RF. Scale Development. Newbury Park, Sage Publications, 1991. (Applied Social Research Methods Series, v. 26)
-This slim volume discusses the "latent variable", provides guidelines for development of scales and provides a description of measurement in the broader research context.

Lewis-Beck, MS, ed. Basic Measurement, London, SAGE, 1994.
-This text is part of the International handbooks of quantitative applications in the social sciences and focuses on scaling.
 

3.10 Survey/Questionnaire Research
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Fowler, FJ. Improving Survey Questions: Design and Evaluation, Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, 1995.
-This book is part of the Applied social research methods series and describes the development of a survey interview form and how to improve the quality of survey data for quantitative analysis.

Gothberg HM. The Library Survey. A Research Methodology Rediscovered. College and Research Libraries 1990;51(6).553-559.
-This paper discusses the types, usefulness, and methods for conducting survey research.

Hernon P. Survey Research: Time for Some Changes. Journal of Academic Librarianship. 2000; 26(2):83-84.
Focuses on the changes in the conduct of survey research since the Internet.

Mondschein LG. SDI Use and Productivity in the Corporate Research Environment. Special Libraries 1990;81(4):265-279.
-This is a good example of a questionnaire study. Analysis of the data includes descriptive statistics and multiple regression analysis.

Weller AC. Editorial Peer Review: Methodology and Data Collection. Bulletin of the Medical Library Association July 1990;78(3):258-265.
-Questionnaires and interviews were used in this study of editorial peer review practices of a sample of medical journals. A summary of the methodology is provided along with a comparison of the differences between data collected through the two methods.
 

3.11 Theory/Model Building Research
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Liddy ED, Jorgensen C. Modelling Information Seeking Behaviors in Index Use. Proceedings of the 56th Annual Meeting of the American Society for Information Science 1993;30:185-190.
-This article provides a good example of the modelling process in information science.
 

4. Related topics

4.1 Consumer of Research
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Maier, MH. The Data Game: Controversies in Social Science Statistics, 2nd ed., Armonk, NY, M.E. Sharpe, 1995.
-This work provides an excellent overview of the problems of relying on statistics to provide information and solutions and gives examples of incorrect sampling, misinterpretation of data and other interesting controversies.

Riegelman RK, Hirsh RP. Studying a Study and Testing a Test: How to Read the Medical Literature, 3rd ed., Boston, Little, Brown and Company, 1996.
-This text examines the process of critical evaluation of the medical literature. The concepts covered can be extended to other sciences and the social sciences.
 

3.12 Cohort Studies
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Grimes DA, Schulz KF. Cohort Studies: Marching Towards Outcomes. Lancet 2002;359(9303:341-345. A thorough overview of cohort studies, including the strengths and weaknesses of this research method.

4.2 Ethics in Research
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Amdur R. Institutional Review Board: Management and Function. Sudbury MA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers, 2002.
Step-by-step approach to practical details of Institutional Review Board (IRB) administration. Includes case studies, sample forms, and sample policy documents. Topical approach to issues with algorithms and lists of approval criteria for their resolution.

Coughlin SS, Beauchamp TL. Ethics and Epidemiology. NY:Oxford University Press, 1998.
-Theoretical and Practical moral challenges in epidemiology for students and health professionals. Discusses the difficulties of keeping subjects informed and protected from unnecessary risks while performing relevant and important research.

Council of Biology Editors EPC. Ethics and Policy in Scientific Publication, Bethesda, MD, The Council, 1990.
-An informative and useful book which discusses issues pertinent to the ethics of publication in science. Includes topics such as fraud, redundant publication, the peer review process, and lying with statistics.

Homan R. The Ethics of Social Research, New York, NY, Longman, 1991.
-The author examines the ethical concerns of social sciences research such as privacy, informed consent, professional codes and controls and the use of covert methods.

Sales B. Ethics in Research with Human ParticipantsWashington DC: American Psychological Association, 2000.
-Presents the ethical principles that underlie the decision-making process in planning and implementing research with human participants. Differentiates between privacy and confidentiality, and the needs of special populations.

4.3 Grant Proposals
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Bowden VM. National Library of Medicine Resource Grants: Application and Review. Bulletin of the Medical Library Association 1992;80(2):157-168.
-The author discusses the preparation of the NLM resource grant proposal, the review process, problems and reapplication. Examples of goals, objectives methods, evaluation, progress reports, and the proposal budget are provided.

Carlson, M. Winning Grants Step by Step: Support Centers of America's Complete Workbook for Planning, Developing, and Writing Successful Proposals , San Francisco, Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1995.
-The title says it all.

Geever JC, McNeill P. The Foundation Center's Guide to Proposal Writing, New York, The Foundation Center, 1993.
-Book takes the proposal writer through each step in the process from the pre- proposal planning, packaging the proposal, researching potential funders, to the post-grant follow-up. Appendices include what the funders have to say and a sample proposal.

Meador R. Guidelines for Preparing Proposals, 2nd ed. Chelsea, MI, Lewis Publishers, Inc., 1991.
-This book provides tips for successful proposal writing.

Miner LE, Griffith J. Proposal Planning and Writing. Phoenix, AZ, Oryx Press, 1993.
-The authors divide the text between writing foundation and corporate proposals and writing government proposals. Unique to this publication are the suggestions on how computers simplify the grant development process.
 

4.4 Scientific Writing and Speaking
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Booth, V. Communicating in Science: Writing a Scientific Paper and Speaking at Scientific Meetings, 2nd ed. New York, Cambridge University Press, 1993.>
-This short, straightforwardly written book provides an advice for effective written and oral presentation of research. Chapters cover writing scientific papers, preparation of manuscripts, speaking at meetings and writing theses. An excellent concise and clearly written resource for novice researchers and those wishing to improve their presentation skills.

Chambers H. Effective Communication Skills for Scientific and Technical Professionals. Cambridge MA:Perseus Books, 2000.
-A practical guide for technical and scientific professionals to become better communicators in the workplace. Includes self-assessment tools and exercises.

Cormack, D. Writing for Health Care Professions, 2nd ed. Oxford, Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1994.
-Written from a British perspective, this title still provides additional information on the topics of writing and preparing a speech, writing a travel scholarship application, and discussing the "economics" of writing.

Council of Biology Editors, Style Manual Committee. Scientific Style and Format: the CBE Manual for Authors, Editors, and Publishers, 6th ed. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1995.
-This latest edition of a standard scientific style guide has been greatly revised and expanded to more than twice the length of the previous edition. Very detailed, useful chapters on a variety of new topics such as the history of scientific notation and a list of standards (ISO etc.) for editing and publishing. Exceptionally thorough index.

Day, RA. How to Write & Publish a Scientific Paper, 5th ed. Phoenix, AZ, Oryx Press, 1998.
-Another clearly-written guide, this publication presents a brief history of scientific writing and then succinctly takes the reader through a series of How-to chapters from preparing a title to keyboarding the manuscript. Includes details on writing book reviews, theses, conference reports, review papers as well as how to prepare poster sessions. Appendices of unique value cover "abbreviations that may be used without definition in table headings" and "common errors in style and spelling" and "words and expression to avoid".

Goodman NW, Edwards MB. Medical Writing: a Prescription for Clarity: a Self-Help Guide to Clearer Medical English, 2^nd ed. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press, 1997.
- This handbook is a style manual for incorporating medical terminology into scientific papers and is filled with examples illustrating points made in the text. It would be useful to information professionals collaborating with clinicians on writing for biomedical journals.

Huth EJ. How to Write and Publish Papers in the Medical Sciences, 2^nd ed. Baltimore, MD, Williams & Wilkins, 1990.
- Written by the then editor of Annals of Internal Medicine, this text provides stepwise guidance on publishing a manuscript, from paper structure to proofing for publication. Although its advice is generally applicable to any science or social science journals, its focus on medical journals would be useful for librarians seeking to publish in the biomedical literature.

Iverson C American Medical Association Manual of Style. 9^th ed. Baltimore: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 1998.
-Outline of guidelines for medical writing.

Lang T. How to Report Statistics in Medicine. Philadelphia: American College of Physicians, 1997.
-A set of detailed, comprehensive, and understandable guidelines for reporting statistical information in medicine.

Rubens P. Science and Technical Writing: A Manual of Style, New York, Henry Holt & Co., Inc., 1995.
-This style manual covers many aspects of scientific writing. It is particularly strong on creating usable data displays and illustrations and designing useful documents. Other sections (e.g., referencing source materials) are covered better in other sources.

West R. A Checklist for Writing Up Research Reports. Addiction 2000; 95(12):1759-1761.
-This checklist is designed to meet the need for submissions to the journal, Addiction, but can prove valuable in other writing endeavors.

Wolcott HF. Writing Up Qualitative Research, Newbury Park, CA, Sage Publications, 1990.
-This text provides helpful and practical suggestions for all inquiry oriented researchers. The writing process is a major focus of the text.

Zieger M. Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Papers, 2^nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Publishing, 2000.
-Presents principles and illustrates with examples emphasizing structure and storytelling.

Elements of Style. URL http://www.columbia.edu/acis/bartleby/strunk/
- The most useful sections of this classic are now freely available on the Web courtesy of Columbia University's Project Bartleby Archive.

Guidelines: Responsible Conduct Regarding Scientific Communication.
URL http://www.sfn.org/guidelines/
- An ad hoc committee of the Society for Neuroscience has prepared scientific communication guidelines for writing, reviewing, and editing peer-reviewed manuscripts; submission of abstracts to scientific meetings; and presentations to the lay public. The final revision of the guidelines as of November 1998 are downloadable from this Web site in PDF and Microsoft Word formats.

Instructions to Authors in the Health Sciences. URL http://www.mco.edu/lib/instr/libinsta.html
- Raymond H. Mumford Library, Medical College of Ohio, excels in maintaining this list of links to journal Web pages with author instructions. The links are to primary source sites produced by the publishers and organizations with editorial responsibility for the journals themselves This site is invaluable for medical librarians and their patrons publishing in any of the over 2,000 health sciences journals included in the list.
 

4.5 Epidemiology
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Gelbach SH. Interpreting the Medical Literature. 3^rd ed. New York, McGraw-Hill, Health Professions Division, 1993.
-Really good book on what to look for when reading medical literature. Good ideas for designing research.

Greenberg RS, Daniels SR, et al. Medical Epidemiology. 2^nd ed. Norwalk, CT, Appleton & Lange, 1996.
-This is a very good introductory text to epidemiology. Much of evidence-based medicine and critical analysis of the literature comes from this field.

Katz D. Clinical Epidemiology & Evidence-Based Medicine: Fundamental Principles of Clinical Reasoning & Research. Thousand Oaks CA: Sage Publications, 2001.
- Clinical examples and citations from peer-reviewed literature to show how statistical principles can improve medical decisions.

Sackett DL, Haynes RB, Guyatt GH, Tugwell P. Clinical Epidemiology: A Basic Science for Clinical Medicine. 2^nd ed. Boston, Little & Brown, 1991.
-Very good overview of epidemiology with an emphasis on critical appraisal of the literature.

4.6 Data Collection
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Chick G. Writing Culture Reliably:The Analysis of High-Concordance Codes. Ethnology 2000 39(4):365-393.
-Explores the forms of systematic data collection that assure validity, reliability, and ultimate replication of research.

Easton KL, McComish JF, Greenberg R. Avoiding Common Pitfalls in Qualitative Data Collection and Transcription. Qualitative Health Research 2000; 10(5):703-707.
-Focuses on assurance of reliability and validity in qualitative research. Discusses three areas of potential error - equipment failure, environmental hazards, and transcription errors - and proposes strategies to minimize the risk of these errors occurring.

Morgan GA, Harmon RJ. Data Collection Techniques. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry2001;40(8):973-976.
-Covers direct observation technique, instruments, standard tests technique, summated attitude scales, questionnaires, and interviews.